Code of Ethics Shell Oil

Introduction Shell oil has a code of ethics that can be found in any other business because it is very standard. This paper will identify the ethical system employed at Shell Oil and discuss how this code of ethics is applied within the company. In this paper, I will also identify the type of ethical system used within this company by including information regarding the different departments and the code of ethics.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Code of Ethics: Shell Oil specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More All the stakeholders in a company need to understand the whole code of ethics because each will find different uses for the code in their respective duties. In addition, a discussion of the modifications to the code will be looked at to identify any amendments if necessary. Lastly, the paper will explore possible amendments to the code of ethics by employers and employees. Company Profile Shell oil is on e of the leading oil, gas and petrochemicals producers in North America. It is a prominent company in the oil production industry in the Mexican gulf. Shell is a branch of Royal Dutch, which is a prominent company in the oil industry. Shell oil has purposed to operate in the same way as the Royal Dutch. The company has also purposed to handle its clients in a way that will create a close relationship with them. The company also aims to help its employees achieve their full potential. The company’s code of ethics is aligned to ensure that the company succeeds financially and that its clients are well taken care of. The code of ethics is specifically written to spell out the main requirements of employees, how breaches are to be reported, and how to deal with the accountability issue (Shell Oil 2011, p. 1). Type of ethical system The code of ethics and consequently the ethical system at Shell Oil is a duty-based or deontological ethical system. A duty based ethical system invol ves a moral obligation for an individual to act in a certain way, but an outside authority determines right and wrong. Such a system simply states that some things are right and others are wrong and therefore individuals have a duty to do or avoid them. This is in line with the key requirements stated in Shell Oil’s code of ethics. The requirements have a list that spell out the moral principles at Shell. The list says that all employees should act in accordance with high standards of honesty, integrity and fairness and expect others to do the same for them while maintaining a work climate that fosters the same standards.Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More It also states that employees must not in any circumstances, seek or accept any favor in whatsoever form from third parties to their own advantage as described in the code of ethics of any Shell company unless such things are gifts of nominal value appropriate in particular circumstances (Kerns, n.d, 1). Implementation At Shell, the code of ethics is used to guide employees to act with honesty, integrity and fairness. Employees are encouraged to maintain high moral principles towards senior management and customers to foster a good business environment that will ensure that the company meets its goals. Employees are also expected to adhere to the SGBP in dealing with securities and any other provisions. This is done to avoid conflicts of interest as stipulated in the terms and conditions of employment. The code has been used in many occasions to bar management from using their positions for their own interests. It also prohibits them from soliciting or accepting favors or doing special favors and from misusing the company’s resources. It is common practice for employees to model their own behavior after executives and managers have shown a good example. Therefore management should first adhere to the code. If they fail then they should not expect junior employees to perform any better. Management also employs the code of ethics when hiring employees. It is not just the ability and willingness to do a job that determines potential employees but their level of honesty and integrity plays a great role. Management should display the same when hiring potential employees making sure that they are not biased in their selection. The Board of directors should also conduct itself with integrity because this affects the bottom-line results. They are expected to apply ethical standards in making decisions or before taking an action. It is confirmed that company’s that succeed in promoting ethics make them a top priority starting from the hiring of employees and communicating them clearly.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Code of Ethics: Shell Oil specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More When employees feel that they are working in a friendly environment, they a less chance of them engaging in activities like covering up mistakes. They will instead work with a sense of integrity and accountability. They will feel indebted to the company because of its ethically strong management team and board of directors (Shell Code of Conduct, n.d). Code modification Employees at Shell oil have been complaining of age discrimination by those above the age of 54 have been retrenched or demoted from ranks of higher management and replaced by what some managers call the youth. This has been made possible by the decentralization of authority at Shell. There is no doubt that empowered lower level employees and managers may use their authority and engage in unethical issues such as this. Such cases on many occasions have gone unpunished. This calls for a modification of the code of ethics because the existing ones are not being followed. The code of ethics should be modified to include rest rictions barring management from sacking or demoting any employee without a justifiable reason. In case an employee has to be sacked, then the affected party has to be notified about the same and also be given a chance to defend himself. In this way, the principle of honesty, integrity and fairness to all will be upheld. The principle of inclusiveness especially in the area of decision making should be encouraged. This will ensure that decisions affecting the company are not left to a select few. Reactions and effects of the code Various reactions are expected from employees. Those who are perceived to have been the most affected by the previous systems are expected to agree without any problem. Those who benefitted from it will feel aggrieved especially those who misused their authority will feel deprived. It should be clear that all employees should abide by the code and those who will fail to do so will have no option but to quit. This will drastically change the culture of the c ompany from decentralized structure, where individual had the power to decide on behalf of the company to one where decisions are pooled from all parties. Such an environment will boost employee morale and work productivity. Summary In this paper we have seen that a code of ethics is not just a formal statement that outlines related policies. It helps in integrating positive values within an organization. Following its code of ethics, Shell Oil has achieved in its goal of taking care of its customers; it is a model of diversity in corporate America; it has achieved a leading edge in financial, health, safety and environmental performance.Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The company however fails in the area of allowing people to achieve their full potential, but with a change in its code of ethics will see it achieve this. It should be understood that having a code of ethics alone will not prevent an organization from every crisis. A code of ethics only ensures that employees have a clear understanding of the company’s expectations. Management should therefore collaborate with its employees on defining and setting up of rules so that everyone becomes aware of the requirements. With this in place, the management can then take necessary actions to make sure that core values are instilled in the system. With regular review and reinforcement, Shell Oil will rest assure that its ethics will guide every decisions that its team will make, they will become a vital element in the way it conducts its business. References Kerns, T. (n.d). A brief introduction to formal ethics. Web. Shell Code of Conduct. (n.d). Shell Code of Conduct: How to live by the Shell general business principles. Web. Shell Oil. (2011). Shell Oil Company – Company Profile, Information, Business Description, History, Background Information on Shell Oil Company. Web. This research paper on Code of Ethics: Shell Oil was written and submitted by user Hailee Livingston to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Moi Non Plus - French Expression Explained

Moi Non Plus - French Expression Explained The French expression moi non plus ​(pronounced [mwa no(n) plu]) expresses agreement with a negative statement. Its the equivalent of the English statement me neither or neither do I. It literally translates to me no more and its register is normal.  Note that moi can be replaced by a name, a noun, or another stressed pronoun: Pierre non plus - neither does Pierre, Pierre doesnt eithermon mari non plus - neither does my husband, my husband doesnt eitherles professeurs non plus - neither do teachers, teachers dont eithertoi non plus / vous non plus - you either, neither do yoului non plus - him either, neither does heelle non plus - her either, neither does shenous non plus - us either, neither do weeux non plus / elles non plus - them either, neither do they Examples Tu naimes pas le jazz ? Moi non plus.You dont like jazz? Me neither / Neither do I. Sandrine ne veut pas y aller, et moi non plus.Sandrine doesnt want to go, and neither do I. Nous navons pas dargent, toi non plus ?We dont have any money, you (dont) either? Je ne peux pas taider, et Dany non plus.I cant help you, and neither can Dany. You can also use non plus with a negative adverb or pronoun:Je naime pas le jazz non plus.I dont like jazz either. Il ne parle personne non plus.Hes not talking to anyone either. And you can use non plus on its own, in which case there is no simple English equivalent: -Nous navons pas de thà ©.-Et du cafà © ?-Non plus.-We dont have any tea.-What about coffee?-(We dont have) that either.

Bipolar Disorder Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Bipolar Disorder - Article Example Bipolar Disorder It also seeks to give a relevant case study, as well as the historical and policy issues that have been put in place to handle cases of bipolar disorder. It is absolute that examining the issues surrounding bipolar disorder will help in understanding ways through which it can be mitigated and how people can learn to live with those affected. 1.1 Mental Health According to the World Health Organization (WHO), psychological well being is an imperative aspect in life. In the year 2002, it was estimated that around 450 million people across the globe were suffering from behavioral, as well as mental disorders in which around 150 million of them suffered from severe depression. Mental health has serious profound impacts on families and individuals affected as far as their physical, social and economic life is concerned. Since psychological disorders often tend to affect communities as well as the families of those affected, it is essential for people to understand the major effects of men tal illness on both the social systems as well as on individuals. Consequently, this will help in improving the mental care systems and ensure effective development of related mental health programs. It is alleged that mental health covers a vast range of compulsions often affecting the elderly (Nash, 2010). The American Nursing association is focused on collaborating with the health policy makers to enhance the restoration of universal access to mental health care among the US families. Although there has been extensive efforts aimed at enhancing the world mental health, the World Health Organization has stressed on the need to have a comprehensive definition of what mental health is, and to ensure that this extends beyond the presence or absence of diagnosed disorder to include autonomy, self efficacy, well being and competence (World Health Organization, 2013). One of the common mental health issues that has been widely debated on, and that I have had a personal interaction with is bipolar disorder. In this case, it is important to give a synopsis on the historical and policy issues that surrounds, it as well as other essential factors such as its treatment. 1.2 What is Bipolar Disorder? Scholars define bipolar disorder as a manic depressive mental health state in which a person exhibits bidirectional fluctuations from a depressive to a euphoric state. Other common symptoms are irritability, a sense of hopelessness, grandiosity, low self esteem, insomnia, racing thoughts, distractibility, agitation and suicidal thoughts (Friedman, 2001, pp.165-166). Research also shows that the sleeping patterns of persons suffering from bipolar disorder often vary with the severity, the clinical state, as well as the stage of the disorder. For instance, when depressed, bipolar patients tend to sleep excessively and when in a manic state, they sleep less or not at all (â€Å"The Biology of Mental Disorders,† n.d, p.88). In the US, it is estimated that more than two m illion people suffer from bipolar disorder. One of the main reasons behind its unprecedented rise is complications that hinder appropriate as well as accurate diagnosis. Research shows that half of all the respondents reported visiting more than three mental health experts before having a correct diagnosis (Calibre, n.d, pp.1-2). According to Torrey and

Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 100

Assignment Example Poverty, joblessness and dysfunctional families are common traits of highly segregated groups. This leads to high rates in crime as a way of venting stress. 3. Ethnic diversity has economic and social benefits. Economically, such cities achieve high rates of growth because of minimal segregation and, therefore, workers tend to have peace of mind at their workplaces hence increasing their overall efficacy. On a social perspective, ethnic diversity improves the talents of individuals. For example, the diverse genres of music present in the U.S. are positive consequences of ethnic diversity. 4. Los Angeles is among the most highly populated cities in the U.S. It has most Latinos than anywhere else in America, but is ethnically diverse. One reason is because of the presence of ethnic enclaves such as ‘Little Ethiopia,’ ‘Chinatown’ et cetera, which gives each group a sense of belonging. In addition, it is a busy city with numerous opportunities making people too busy to be segregating themselves. d. San Francisco, California- Other groups are the ethnic minorities because the city has ethnic diversity and has other races relatively well represented (Mapping America: Every city, every block, 2010). a. Southern Cities- Memphis, Nashville, Birmingham, Jackson, and Atlanta have Black or African American as the main race. This is because of their location. It is likely that during the early entry and slavery of the Blacks, most gained entry into America from these regions and settled there. d. Our three largest cities- New York, Los Angeles, and Chicago have Whites who are not Hispanic or Latinos as the main race. However, Blacks and other races also make up a significant fraction of the population. This is because they are chief economic hubs thereby attracting ethnic diversity. 7. The three types of boundaries that can be seen from the map are racial boundaries in

Golden Rule, The Mischief Rule and The Literal Rule of Statutory Essay

Golden Rule, The Mischief Rule and The Literal Rule of Statutory Interpretation - Essay Example An example where Golden Rule was applied was the Sigsworth, Re, Bedford vs Bedford. In this case, a son has murdered his mother who was yet to make a will. Under the Section 46 of the Administration of Estates Act 1925, there should be inheritor and in this case, the son was the sole issue, therefore, he should have inherited the mother’s property. However, the judge ruled under the golden rule and the son did not receive the inheritance. This is because it would have been illogical to give the inheritance to the son as he murdered his mother and would have been benefited by committing a crime. Mischief Rule Mischief Rule of statutory interpretation gives authority to the judge to contain the mischief in the crime and apply it in instances where there occurs an ambiguity in the law. Thus this rule aims to understand the mischief and also to lay down a solution which would correct the situation if implemented. A popular case that came under the Mischief rule was Smith vs. Hughe s. In this case, prostitutes were charged for recruiting clients from a public place while within the confines of a private area, which were the windows that overlooked the street. Under the Street Offences Act of 1959, it is illegal to attract clients with the intention of offering sex services on streets. The defendants pleaded that they had not attracted clients on the streets but were within their own homes. However, the judge found them guilty since the prostitutes had mischief on their mind and were, in fact, taking clients from the streets. Literal Rule Literal Rule as the name suggests allows the judge to give out a ruling by taking into account the literal meaning of the word since they do not affect the ruling of the case. The judge, in this case, does not have to consider the meaning or the implications behind words or sentences such as in the case of the previous laws. This is usually the most preferred rule of statutory interpretation. An example of this is the R Vs Har ris case under which the defendant harmed the victim by biting his nose. Since the law considers stabbing, cutting or wounding a person through an instrument as a crime, therefore the defendant was acquitted since he did not commit the crime in the literal sense. Application In normal circumstances, the literal rule is first applied before considering any other approach. When a different approach is taken, a significant reason should be presented as to why the Golden or the Mischief rule had been applied. ‘After 45 years in litigation, I have seen so much money spent, stress caused and delay encountered. Reaching settlement at the door of the court is entirely unsatisfactory’. Sir Henry Brooke in ‘Mediation; Lawyers still need convincing’, Law Gazette (18th September 2008). Â  Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) ADR is an acronym for Alternative Dispute Resolution. Under ADR, the dispute is resolved by allowing the conflicting parties to come to an agreem ent without having to go through the process of filing a case against the defendant. In this system, the dispute is resolved with or without the presence of a third party.

The Errors Vs Mistakes English Language Essay

The Errors Vs Mistakes English Language Essay According to Brown in order to analyze a learner language, it is important to understand the distinction between errors and mistakes. A mistake refers to a performance error that is either a random guess or a slip, seeing as a failure to use a known system correctly. Mistakes can happen in both native and second language are the result of some sort of temporary breakdown, hesitations, slip of the tongue, random ungrammaticalities, or imperfection in the process of producing speech and can be recognized and corrected by native speakers. However errors are idiosyncrasies in the language of the learner. They are actually deviation from adult grammar of a native speaker. It shows the competence of the learner. Then mistakes are referred to performance errors in which the learner knows the system but fails to use it while errors are the result of ones systematic competence. It means that the learners system is incorrect. According to James cited by Brown (2007) the learner is not able to self correct the errors while mistakes if called, can be corrected by the learner. Then error correction can be used as a means for identification of errors and mistakes. However, Brown noted that making a distinction between errors and mistakes is difficult because if no such error correction occurs, we are not able to distinguish those (2007). Keshavarz (2008, p.49) also noted that there is a distinction between errors and mistakes. Errors are rule governed, systematic in nature, internally principled and free from arbitrariness. They show learners underlying knowledge of the target language that is his transitional competence. In contrast to errors, mistakes are random deviations and unrelated to any system. They are related to performance of the learner and might occur in the speech and writing like slip of the tongue, slip of the ear, slip of the pen, and false start. According to Keshavarz (2008) mistakes are due to non-linguistic factors such as fatigue, strong feeling, memory limitations, and lack of concentration and so on. These kinds of mistakes can be corrected by the learner if brought to his attention. He considered that distinguishing between learners errors and mistakes has always been problematic for teachers and researchers as Corder (1967) and Brown (1987) cited in keshavarz (2008) maintained this problem too. Nevertheless most error analyst use a general criterion for distinguishing between errors and mistakes the frequency of occurrence that is: errors which are low frequent are considered as mistakes or performance errors and those which are high frequent are systematic errors. However this criterion alone is not enough for distinguishing between errors and mistakes because low frequency of certain error may due to the low frequency of grammatical patterns or avoidance strategy that a learner uses. Then error analyst should consider casual factors of learners deviant structures as a means of distinguishing between errors and mistakes. According to Corder (1997) cited in Park (2010) errors refer to learners underlying knowledge of the language and mistakes refer to incorrect forms caused by memory lapses, slips of the tongue and other instances of performance errors. Corder considered that learners can correct their own mistakes but they cannot correct their errors because they do not have enough knowledge to distinguish their own utterance and that of the native speaker. He also pointed out two explanations with regard to learner errors. First, the occurrence of errors is merely a sign of the present inadequacy of the teaching techniques (p. 163). That is, if it were possible for teachers to achieve a perfect teaching method, there would be no occurrence of student errors in the target language. The second explanation is that despite teachers best efforts, the occurrence of errors is inevitable because errors occur for many reasons. The reasons can be: interference from L1, overgeneralization, an incomplete knowle dge of the target language, the complexity of the target language, and fossilization. Therefore, teachers should be more concerned with how to deal with students errors than the simple identification of them. For this study, I will use the terms errors and mistakes interchangeably because sometimes it is difficult to distinguish students errors from mistakes. Identification of Errors: (Categories of Error) Corder (1971) cited by Brown (2007) provided a model for identification of errors. Based on his model any sentences uttered by the learner can be analyzed for idiosyncrasies. According to his model there are two types of error: overt and covert errors. Overtly incorrect utterances are ungrammatical at the sentence level and covertly incorrect utterances are grammatically correct at the sentence level but are not interpretable within the context of communication. Then overt errors are sentence level and covert errors are discourse level errors. Burt (1975) cited in Park (2010) categorized errors as global and local ones. Global errors are errors that hinder communication and affect the overall organization of the sentence such as wrong word order, missing, wrong or misplaced sentence connectors however local errors do not usually hinder communication and affect single elements in a sentence such as error in noun and verb inflections, articles, and auxiliaries. He mentioned that the correction of global error clarifies the intended message more than the correction of several local errors. Moreover he argued that teachers should correct high frequent errors first. From another perspective Chaudron (1977, p.32) cited by Park (2010) classified the range of errors from linguistic (phonological, morphological, syntactic) to subject matter content (factual and conceptual knowledge) and lexical items. Valdman( 1975) cited in (salim shahin) provided the same division as Burt and said that in the case of global error the communicatio n between the student and teacher will be blocked and the student requires correction but in the case of local error, communication between the teacher and the student will not be blocked and it is up to the teacher to require the correction of the error, or let the error passes. Hammerley( 1991) cited in (Salim Shahin, 2003) classified errors into surface and deep. According to him surface errors need minor corrections and explanations while deep errors require explanation of why the error was made and what the correct form is. Hendrickson (1978) cited in (Salim Shahin, 2003) divided errors into three main types. 1) errors that hinders communication; 2) errors that have highly stigmatizing effect on the listener or reader but do not hinder communication; 3) errors that can be described as lapses that students usually have in their utterances. These errors are quite common in the speakers utterances yet they hardly block communication between the speaker and his interlocutor. Mackey et al. (2000) cited by Park (2010) categorized four types of errors in their analysis of L2 interactional data as phonological, morphosyntactic, lexical, and semantic ones.1) Phonological errors were non-target like pronunciation; 2) morphosyntactic errors were omitted plural-s and the preposition in; 3) lexical errors were inappropriate lexical items; 4) semantic errors were incorrect meaning or expression. Prabhu (1987) cited in (Salim shahin, 2003) divides errors on the basis of their treatment rather than their nature. According to his division there are two kinds of error: systematic and incidental errors. Systematic errors are those that deviate from the native speakers form and the teacher uses linguistic explanation, long interruptions, and exemplification to help and correct learners error. But Incidental errors do not require linguistic explanation or exemplification from the teacher, such as when the teacher corrects a pronunciation error or when he raises his eyebrows to draw the students attention to the error. Moreover Lennon (1991) cited by Brown (2007) identified different categories for description of errors: Errors of addition, omission, substitution, ordering Level of errors: phonology or orthography, lexicon, grammar and discourse Global and local errors: an error that hinders communication or prevents hearer or reader from understanding some aspect of a message is global and an error that does not prevent a message from being understood, usually due to a minor violation of one segment of a sentence, allowing a hearer or a reader to make an accurate guess about the intended meaning is a local error. (burtkiparsky, 1972 cited by Brown, 2007) Domain and extent error: domain error is the rank of linguistic unit from phoneme to discourse that must be taken as context in order for the error to become apparent. Extent error is the rank of linguistic unit that would have to be deleted, replaced, supplied, or recorded in order to repair the sentence. Other educators like Allwright (1975) cited in (Salim Shahin, 2003) believed that errors should be treated on the basis of their frequency, rather than on their classification. Then errors of high frequency should be given more attention and emphasis than errors of low frequency. Some Definitions in Error Correction: There are different terms when providing feedback in response to learner error in second language acquisition. These are repair, treatment, feedback, negative evidence and correction. Brown (2007, p.388) defined repair as correction by the learner of an ill-formed utterance, either through self-initiated repair or in response to feedback. Chaudron (1988) cited in Dabaghi (2006) defined treatment as any teacher behavior that follows error and shows the error to the learner. Ellis (1994a) cited by (Dabaghi, 2006) also identified feedback as a general cover term in which listeners provide information on the reception and the comprehension of the messages. Lightbown and Spadal (1999) cited in Dabaghi (2006) defined corrective feedback as an indication to the learners that they use target language incorrectly. According to Ellis (1994a) cited by Dabaghi (2006) correction has a narrower meaning than these terms. It is any attempt to provide negative evidence in the form of feedback that draw learners attention to the errors they have made. As Schachter (1991) cited by Dabaghi (2006) said corrective feedback, negative evidence and negative feedback are terms that are respectively used in the field of language teaching, language acquisition, and cognitive psychology. Most of the researchers use these terms interchangeably. In the present research we use error correction and corrective feedback interchangeably whenever the general sense of feedback provision was involve. Types of spoken error correction: According to Lyster Rantas model (1997) cited by Coskum (2010) the types of spoken error correction are as follows: Explicit correction: clearly indicating that the students utterance was incorrect, the teacher provides the correct form. S: there is a little milk in fridge. T: + in the fridge Recast: the teacher implicitly reformulates the students error, or provides the correction without directly pointing out that the students utterance was incorrect. In other words it is the teachers reformulation of all or part of a students utterance, minus the error. S: he like pop-music. T: yes, he likes pop-music Clarification request: the teacher indicates that the message has not been understood or that the students utterance included some kind of mistake and that a repetition or a reformulation is required by using phrases like Excuse me? S: there arent many /hotÄ ±ls/ in this town. T: again? à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ Metalinguistic clues: the teacher poses questions like Do we say it like that? or provides comments or information related to the formation of the students utterance without providing the correct form. Metalinguistic clues contain comments, information or questions related to the well formedness of the students utterance, without explicitly providing the correct form. Metalinguistic comments generally indicate that there is an error somewhere. Metalinguistic information generally provides either some grammatical metalanguage that refers to the nature of the error or a word definition in the case of lexical errors. Metalinguistic questions also point to the nature of the error but attempt to elicit the information from the student. S: there isnt any books. T: + there isnt gà ¶rà ¼nce uncountable, yani sayÄ ±lamayan bir Ã…Å ¸ey kullanmamÄ ±z gerekiyormuÃ…Å ¸. Ds: there isnt any money Elicitation: the teacher directly elicits the correct form from the student by asking questions (e.g. How do I ask somebody to clean the board?), by pausing to allow the student to complete the teachers utterance (e.g. He is a good à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..) or by asking students to reformulate the utterance (e.g. Can you say that again?). Elicitation questions differ from questions that are defined as metalinguistic clues in that they require more than yes/no response. It refers to at least techniques that teachers use to directly elicit the correct form from the students. First teachers elicit completion of their own utterance by strategically pausing to allow students to fill in the blank as it were. Second, teachers use questions to elicit correct forms. Such questions exclude the use of yes/no questions. The question likes Do we say that in English is metalinguistic feedback, not elicitation. Third teachers occasionally ask students to reformulate their utterance. S: there are a few books in my /lÄ ±brari/ T: in myà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦? à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ Repetition: the teacher repeats the students error and changes intonation to draw students attention to it. S: How much money do you have in your /pakÄ ±t/? T: /pakÄ ±t/? à ´Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ DS: /pokÄ ±t/ T: yes Sources of Error: According to Brown (2007, p.263) there are four sources of error: 1) Interlingual transfer: it is a significant source of error for all learners. It is the effect of one language (usually the first) on another (usually the second). At early stages of learning a second language, the linguistic system of the native language is the only system that a learner is familiar with. Then the native linguistic system can interfere or transfer and cause some errors in second language. 2) Intralingual transfer: Another source of error which goes beyond the interlingual transfer is intralingual transfer. It is the effect of forms of one language (usually the target language) on other forms within the same language. According to Odlin (2003), Jaszczolt (1995) and Taylor (1975) cited by Brown (2007) once learners have begun to learn the system of second language, it is the system of second language that cause error. In fact intralingual transfer that is generalization within the target language occurs. 3) Context of learning: The third source of error is context of learning which is called false concept by Richard (1971) and induced error by Stenson (1979) cited by Brown (2007). It overlaps two types of transfer and refers to classroom, materials and social situation that can lead learners to make faulty hypotheses about the language. 4) Communication strategies: The forth source of error is communication strategies. They are production strategies that learners use to enhance getting their message across, but these strategies can become a source of error. Moreover Corder (1975) cited by Keshavarz (2008, p101) distinguished three types of sources of errors: Inter lingual errors which are caused by first language interference Intralingual errors that are caused by the learners generalizing and over generalizing particular rules. Errors caused by faulty teaching techniques. Another classification was considered by Dualy and Burt cited by Keshavarz (2008, p. 101) for second language learners error which are called goofs: Interference-like goofs: errors which show native language structure and are not found in first language acquisition data of the target language. L1-developmental goofs: errors that do not reflect native language structure but are found in L1 acquisition data of the target language Ambiguous goofs: those errors that can be as either interference-like goofs or L1 developmental goof. Unique goofs: errors that do not reflect L1 structure and also not found in L1 acquisition data of the target language. Significance of errors: Many scholars in the field of error analysis have stressed the significance of second language learners error. For example Corder (1967) cited by Keshavarz (2008) remarked that errors are significant in three ways: First errors are significant to the teacher in that they help him to understand how much the learner has progressed and what remains for him to learn. Second errors provide evidence for the learner to recognize how language is learnt or acquired and what strategies and procedures are used by the learner to discover the language. Third errors are important to the learner himself in which they are a device the learner uses in order to learn. Moreover Richard (1971) cited by Keshavarz (2008, p.45) noted that errors are significant and of interest to: 1) Linguistics, because according to Chomsky the study of human language is the best way of understanding the human intelligence; 2) Psychologists, because by comparing childrens and adults speech, they can examine the nature of the mental processes that seem to be involved in language; 3) Teachers, because by analyzing learners errors, they would be able to discover their difficulties and devise a method for comparing them. Besides, Jain (1974) cited by Keshavarz (2008) maintained 2 reasons for the significance of error: Understanding the process of second language acquisition Planning courses incorporating the psychology of second language learning. Other researchers like Dulay and Burt (1975) cited by Dabaghi (2006) stressed the significance of error by indicating two major reasons: 1) error provides data from which interferences about the nature of the language learning processes can be made, and 2) it shows to the teachers and curriculum developers in which part of the language, learners have difficulty with and which error types detract most from the learners ability to communicate effectively. Historical perspectives of error correction: Russel (2009) noted that error correction is a controversial issue in the field of second language education (SLE) and second language teacher education (SLTE). How to correct errors depends on the methodological perspectives of teachers. In behaviorist teaching models such as audio lingual method that was popular in 1950s and 1960s, error correction was stressed at all cost. Behaviorists believed that errors were inevitable but they tried to provide the correct form immediately. Brooks (1960, p.56) cited by Russull (2009) considered that like sin, error is to be avoided and its influence overcomesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ the best way to overcoming errors is to shorten the time lapse between the incorrect response and a presentation of correct form. However in 1970s the value of grammar instruction and error correction in behaviorist model was questioned. Russull (2009) considered that in 1970s and 1980s some scholars claimed that error correction was not only unnecessary but also harmful to second language acquisition. The most well known model which was against error correction was Stephan Krashens monitor model which has five hypotheses about language learning. Rashtchi keshavarz (2007) noted that the learners affective an d emotional status can act as filters which do not allow easy absorption of input. It means that affective filter will hinder the process of learning (p.76). Moreover they noted that according to natural order hypothesis all linguistic elements and skills are learned in a predictable order and this order is not influenced by the native language of the learners. Russell (2009) mentioned that Terrell created the natural approach which is a method that emphasizes the development of communicative competence. According to his approach affective rather than cognitive factors are primary concern in the language classroom and correction of learners error is negative in terms of motivation, attitude and embarrassment. In this approach teacher never correct the learner oral errors. Then learners themselves should study grammatical structures in order to correct their mistakes. Communicative language teaching approach became popular in 1980s and like natural approach focuses on communicative competence and notional functional concepts over the instruction of grammatical structures. (Richards Rogers (1986) cited by Russell (2009). The objective in CLT is the development of fluency and acceptable language use and since emphasize is on meaning over form, error correction is not of primary importance. However when learners accuracy is assessed, it is always done in context. (Omaggio Hadley, 2001 cited by Russell), and in 1990s some researchers assert that explicit grammar instruction, error correction and focus on form could promote SLA. (Aljaafreh Lantolf, 1994; Doughy Varela, 1993; Ellis, 1993, 1994; Fotos, 1994; Long 1996; Schmidt, 1990, 1993, 1995; Sharwood Smith, 1993). Error correction and second language acquisition: According to Dabaghi (2006, p. 25) there are different views and opinions about language teaching and learning in which the changes in methodologies, materials and attitudes toward second language learning have always been important to language experts. Since error correction cannot be separated from these views and opinions, it must be discussed in terms of its relation to the theories of second language acquisition. In the following sections, we can see a number of second language acquisition theories and models that in some way affect our understanding of error correction. Contrastive analysis model: In the era of contrastive analysis and audiolingualism, there was a negative approach towards errors. According to Stern (1983) cited in Dabaghi (2006, p.25) some of the scholars during 1950s and 1960s had a puritanical perspective about errors committed by second language learners and as Brooks (1960) cited by (Dabaghi, 2006, p.25) said like sin, error is to avoid and its influence overcome but its presence is to be expected. According to Dulay, Burt, and Krashen (1982) cited by Dabaghi (2006), in contrastive analysis, there is a comparison between learners native and target language and these differences cause the majority of an second language learners errors. Based on behaviorist view which was prevalent at that time, learning is a process of habit formation and errors from first language habits interfere with the learners attempt to learn new linguistic behaviors. Then to avoid errors, teachers should prevent and correct errors and shorten the time lapse between the incorrect response and the correct model. But as Dabaghi (2006, p.26) said, paying too much attention to prevention of errors and teaching learners to use language creatively in response to expected and unexpected stimuli in the environment are the drawback of contrastive analysis model and structural approach and caused the very foundation of contrastive analysis as a result of Chomskys transformational generative grammar, which emphasize d the active participation of the learners mind in processing data. In short, according to CA, learning is a process of habit formation and interfering language habits with learners attempts to learn new linguistic behaviors cause errors. Then the audio lingual approaches to teaching aimed to prevent learners from committing errors and believed that errors should be corrected immediately. Inter language model: In inter language era the second language learner was considered to be an autonomous creator of a language system who has a built-in-syllabus (Corder (1981) cited by Dabaghi (2006, p. 26)). It means that a learner is equipped with an internally programmed sequence which is sometimes in accordance with what teacher teaches and sometimes contradictory and learner follows his/her own build in syllabus. According to this view errors are the evidence of the learners present transitional competence and manifest the way the learner processes the input in her linguistic environment. Dabaghi (2006, p.27) mentioned that the inter language view of language acquisition believed on the whole role of language learning to the language learner and weaken the impact of negative evidence in second language development. According to this view, if negative evidence is provided within the syllabus predetermined in the mind of language learners, it can be effective otherwise it causes frustration and confusion for the learner and teachers. This view was strengthened by non-interventionist view taken by Dulay and Burt (1973), Krashen (1983) and Prabhu(1987) cited by Dabaghi (2006) who argued that grammar instruction should be abandoned in order to let the learner acquire the language from untutored language setting. The teacher should only provide the learner with opportunities for natural use of language. To sum up, the inter language model considered second language learners as self governing creator of a language system who follow their own built in learning program which c an sometimes benefit from error correction and sometimes not. Krashens Input Hypotheses: it is commonly known that for the acquisition of a second language, input that is provided either by a teacher or by another learner is essential. Corder (1967) cited by (Faqeih, 2012) distinguished input from intake. According to him, what is available to the learner is called input and what is actually internalized is called intake. According to Faqeih (2012) Krashen proposed the most influential theory of the role of input in second language acquisition in 1980. He noted that for the acquisition of second language, learners must be exposed to comprehensible meaningful input which contains linguistic data that are a little beyond learners knowledge (i+1) where i is the second language learners current linguistic competence and (i+1) is the next level of that competence achieved with comprehensible input ( Krashen, 1985 cited by Faqeih, 2012). He also suggested that production of the target does not directly aid acquisition. Krashen considered that learners can make use of three kin ds of contextual information: extra-linguistic information that is learners knowledge of the world and previously acquired linguistic competence; the input that can be available via interaction; and interaction in which meaning has to be negotiated e.g. when there is a communication problem. Krashen (1985) cited by (Faqeih, 2012) also distinguished learning and acquisition. He considered that acquisition uses unconscious processes and those grammatical rules are not helpful. In other words, second language is acquired more like first language and parents focus on communication and meaning instead of focusing on explicit instruction of the language. He also implied that if input is understood and there is enough of it, the necessary grammar is automatically learnt. He also argued that error correction (= negative evidence) do not improve second language performance. On the other hand learning is the conscious process that involves the memorization of many formal grammatical rules and error correction can have a role in this. According to him learning leads to grammatical and mechanical knowledge of the language, but it does not lead to fluency. Note that although Krashen distinguished between learning and acquisition, but this thesis uses them interchangeably. According to Faqeih (2012) Krashens input hypothesis is supported by some scholar such as Shwartz (1993) and Truscott (1996). They noted that for learners to acquire second language, only positive evidence that is a model from the target language is sufficient and negative feedback such as implicit and explicit feedback to any non target like feature in learners speech does not help learning and that structures learned through error correction cannot become part of internal grammar. They also proposed the negative effects of error correction such as confusing the learners, causing over use of a particular form or interfering with natural language acquisition processes. Others like Lightbown Spada 1993 cited by Faqeih (2012) said that excessive use of error correction lead to lower motivation. According to Krashens affective filter, classroom teachers should not focus intentionally or explicitly on errors of language from during class but should instead provide comprehensible input t o learners. Other scholars such as Mitchell Myles (2004) cited by Faqeih (2012) criticized this hypothesis because of lacking in empirical evidence and untreatable owing to its vagueness. Moreover White (1987) criticized Krashens input hypothesis for not considering the possible benefits of providing rules, said that certain types of errors may need rules instruction. Others like Ellis, Tanaka, Yamazaki (1994) cited by Faqeih 2012 considered that although interaction can solve communication problems through negotiation and increased comprehension, it does not mean that increased comprehension automatically leads to L2 acquisition; that is, learners may not necessarily retain the comprehended target language. Longs Interaction Hypothesis: Based on Krashens input Hypothesis in which input is important for acquisition to take place, Long suggested his own interaction hypothesis (Long, 1996, 2007 cited by Faqeih (2012)). He considered that input is not sufficient on its own for language learning to occur and some type of negative evidence may be beneficial role in acquisition and more attention should be given to the interaction that learners are engaged in. In 1996 he updated his hypothesis and mentioned that some controversial strategies such as repetitions, confirmation checks, comprehension checks, clarification request or recasts can solve communication problems. This kind of interaction involved components like negotiation, recasts, and feedback. According to Long (2007) cited by Faqeih (2012) interactional feedback is very important aspect for language development because it helps learners become aware of their error, and notice the mismatches between their inter language and the target language. It also encourage s learners to hypothesize the correct form and test them and modify their inter language. Long (2007) cited by Faqeih (2012, p.29) claimed that for error correction to be affective, simultaneous focus on form and meaning should be provided in a classroom context and the best strategy for the negotiation for meaning is recast, Because it is implicit and does not interrupt the flow of interaction. Dabaghi ( 2006, p.28) mentioned that according to Long, when there is a conversation between two interlocutors ( native speakers and non native speaker) there are both similarities and differences in the form of grammatical complexity between them. They use some conversational tactics such as clarification request, repetition or comprehension checks. It shows that the non native speaker or less component interlocutor is experiencing comprehension problems and using these tactics is very useful in language learning. In the process of interactional adjustments, both interlocutors make effort to understand each other. It means that they adjust their input to make it more comprehensible that is i+1 in Krashens term. However this hypothesis was criticized by Braidi (1995

Autonomy and Political Responsibility after the Cold War Essay

Autonomy and Political Responsibility after the Cold War After World War II, Europe emerged as a continent torn between two very different political ideologies, Communism and Democracy. As the two major superpowers, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the United States, struggled to defend their respective governmental policies, the European Continent was caught in an intrinsic struggle to preserve the autonomy which had taken so long to achieve. During the Cold War, Eastern European nations struggled to achieve autonomy with the help of the West's dedication to break the Soviet sphere of influence. After the disintegration of the USSR, the struggle for autonomy among nations shifted from an intense, inward, nationalistic struggle to break away from a superpower to a commitment of international unity and cooperation as nations began to take moral and political responsibility for their actions. The alliance formed between the US and USSR during the second world war was not strong enough to overcome the decades of uneasiness which existed between the two ideologically polar opposite countries. With their German enemy defeated, the two emerging nuclear superpowers no longer had any common ground on which to base a political, economical, or any other type of relationship. Tensions ran high as the USSR sought to expand Soviet influence throughout Europe while the US and other Western European nations made their opposition to such actions well known. The Eastern countries already under Soviet rule yearned for their independence, while the Western countries were willing to go to great lengths to limit Soviet expansion. "Containment of 'world revolution' became the watchword of American foreign policy throughout the 1950s a... ... and a special exhibit on the Internal Workings of the Soviet System. This site provides an accurate representation of the Soviet System during the Cold War as seen by the actual Soviet documents. Also, this site gives detailed information of pivitol moments during the Cold War era, such as the Cuban Missile Crisis. Berlin Wall gives a brief over-view of the Berlin Wall, its history and its fall. Provides many useful links to several other sites which offer a more in depth exploration of the circumstances surrounding the fall of the Berlin Wall. This is a vital link for gaining a more comprehensive understanding of the role of the seperation of East and West Germany and the Berlin Wall itself during the Cold War era. Crockatt, Richard. The fifty years war : the United States and the Soviet Union in world politics, 1941-1991. London; New York; Routledge, 1995. Autonomy and Political Responsibility after the Cold War Essay Autonomy and Political Responsibility after the Cold War After World War II, Europe emerged as a continent torn between two very different political ideologies, Communism and Democracy. As the two major superpowers, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the United States, struggled to defend their respective governmental policies, the European Continent was caught in an intrinsic struggle to preserve the autonomy which had taken so long to achieve. During the Cold War, Eastern European nations struggled to achieve autonomy with the help of the West's dedication to break the Soviet sphere of influence. After the disintegration of the USSR, the struggle for autonomy among nations shifted from an intense, inward, nationalistic struggle to break away from a superpower to a commitment of international unity and cooperation as nations began to take moral and political responsibility for their actions. The alliance formed between the US and USSR during the second world war was not strong enough to overcome the decades of uneasiness which existed between the two ideologically polar opposite countries. With their German enemy defeated, the two emerging nuclear superpowers no longer had any common ground on which to base a political, economical, or any other type of relationship. Tensions ran high as the USSR sought to expand Soviet influence throughout Europe while the US and other Western European nations made their opposition to such actions well known. The Eastern countries already under Soviet rule yearned for their independence, while the Western countries were willing to go to great lengths to limit Soviet expansion. "Containment of 'world revolution' became the watchword of American foreign policy throughout the 1950s a... ... and a special exhibit on the Internal Workings of the Soviet System. This site provides an accurate representation of the Soviet System during the Cold War as seen by the actual Soviet documents. Also, this site gives detailed information of pivitol moments during the Cold War era, such as the Cuban Missile Crisis. Berlin Wall gives a brief over-view of the Berlin Wall, its history and its fall. Provides many useful links to several other sites which offer a more in depth exploration of the circumstances surrounding the fall of the Berlin Wall. This is a vital link for gaining a more comprehensive understanding of the role of the seperation of East and West Germany and the Berlin Wall itself during the Cold War era. Crockatt, Richard. The fifty years war : the United States and the Soviet Union in world politics, 1941-1991. London; New York; Routledge, 1995.